Discover the MythCloud

Bluiríní Béaloidis is a podcast from the National Folklore Collection at University College Dublin. It explores the rich landscape of Irish and European folk traditions. Each episode journeys through diverse cultural narratives, revealing how understanding our traditional heritage can illuminate our present and guide our future. By uncovering the stories, beliefs, and practices embedded in folklore, the podcast invites listeners to discover the depth and complexity of our shared cultural inheritance.

Salmon
For centuries, Irish communities have relied on the bounty of seas, rivers, and lakes for both physical sustenance and economic survival.

This episode of Blúiríní Béaloidis sees Jonny Dillon and Claire Doohan explore one of Ireland's most celebrated aquatic creatures: the noble salmon. Revered in both practical and symbolic terms, the salmon—known as 'the silvery fellow', 'the king', and 'the plum of the sea'—has inspired a wealth of lore, customs, and beliefs.

Distinct from other aquatic creatures, the salmon's ability to traverse both freshwater rivers and saltwater seas places it in a unique position in Irish tradition. Dillon and Doohan examine tales of daring poachers, dangerous plants, superstitious fishermen, and naming taboos, uncovering fascinating 15th-century riddles that persisted into 20th-century oral tradition.

From the mythic Salmon of Life (Bradán na Beatha) to the renowned Salmon of Knowledge, the episode explores how these tales intersect with 10th-century Irish-Norse relations and broader Indo-European narrative traditions, revealing how mythological creatures often serve as vessels for cultural wisdom and knowledge transmission across generations.

The Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp (KMSKA) houses Two Satyrs (Inventory No. 10558), a significant work by Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), the foremost Flemish Baroque painter whose influence extended throughout Europe during the 17th century and beyond.

This piece depicts two satyrs, mythological creatures from classical antiquity that embody the wild, untamed aspects of nature. In Greek and Roman mythology, satyrs were typically portrayed as part-human, part-goat beings, often associated with the god Dionysus (Bacchus) and his revelries. They represented unbridled sensuality, revelry, and the chaotic forces of the natural world that exist beyond human civilisation and control.

Rubens' portrayal of these mythological figures would likely reflect his characteristic approach to classical subjects, informed by his extensive knowledge of ancient art and literature as well as his direct study of classical sculpture during his years in Italy. His satyrs would likely combine anatomical precision with dynamic posture and expressive features, embodying the tension between human and animal natures that makes these creatures such compelling symbols.

Throughout his career, Rubens frequently drew upon mythological subjects, using them as vehicles for exploring themes of passion, power, and the relationship between civilisation and nature. His mythological works demonstrate his ability to infuse classical narratives with emotional intensity and sensual vitality, qualities that made his interpretations particularly influential for subsequent generations of European artists.

This work exemplifies the continuing resonance of classical mythology in Baroque art, revealing how ancient symbolic figures could be reinterpreted to address the aesthetic sensibilities and philosophical concerns of new cultural contexts. Rubens' satyrs bridge the ancient and the early modern, maintaining the essential symbolic power of these figures while adapting their representation to contemporary artistic conventions.

This Late 19th Century Lithuanian Folk Song Archive, c. 1890s. Collection of images, music notation, various artefacts, and Lithuanian sashes, recorded and curated by Jonas Basanavičius. Lithuanian Art Exhibition; Aleksandras Jurašaitis (1859-1915)/. Lietuvos nacionalinis muziejus (National Museum of Lithuania).represents a crucial moment in the preservation of Baltic oral traditions. Collected from the villagers of Dziegcioriai, the song forms part of Lithuania's intangible cultural heritage—stories and melodies that maintained cultural identity during periods of political suppression and foreign domination.

The preservation of such folk songs is particularly significant in the Baltic context, where sung poetry served as a repository for collective memory and shared values during centuries of occupation by various powers. The act of collecting and archiving these songs was not merely an academic exercise but a deliberate effort to document and legitimise national identity at a time when Baltic political independence was still an aspiration rather than a reality.

Basanavičius himself was not simply a collector but a central figure in Lithuania's national awakening, understanding that folk traditions provided essential material for constructing a coherent national narrative. His work exemplifies how the documentation of folklore often serves dual purposes: preservation of cultural heritage and creation of foundational resources for national mythology.

Now housed in the Lithuanian Folklore Archive, this song exists in a transformed state—from a living, performed tradition to a documented cultural artefact. This transition from orality to archive represents a common pattern in how traditional mythologies are simultaneously preserved and changed by modern institutional practices. While the archival process ensures the song's survival, it also fundamentally alters its context, transforming a participatory community practice into an object of study and cultural memory.

Mitologia Słowiańska w Zarysie ("An Outline of Slavic Mythology"), accessible through Polona, the digital library of the National Library of Poland, provides a comprehensive overview of the pre-Christian belief systems of the Slavic peoples. This resource represents an important scholarly effort to reconstruct and understand a mythological tradition that, unlike Greek or Norse mythology, lacks extensive written documentation from its active period.

The text examines key deities in the Slavic pantheon, such as Perun, the thunderer and supreme god of the pantheon, and Veles, the god of the underworld, cattle, and wealth. These gods formed a cosmic dichotomy, with Perun ruling the sky and Veles governing the underworld, their eternal conflict symbolising the tension between order and chaos in the Slavic cosmological view.

Beyond major deities, the work explores the rich world of spirits that populated the Slavic mythological landscape. These include the domovoi (house spirits) that protected homes and families, and the rusalki (water spirits), often represented as beautiful maidens who could bring both blessing and misfortune to those who encountered them.

The text details how these mythological figures were central to the cultural and spiritual practices of pre-Christian Slavic societies, informing seasonal rituals, agricultural practices, and community cohesion. Despite the relative scarcity of primary sources, the work synthesises archaeological findings, linguistic evidence, and later folkloric traditions to construct a coherent picture of Slavic mythological systems.

This scholarly resource demonstrates how mythological research can illuminate historical worldviews and social structures, even when working with fragmentary evidence and traditions disrupted by religious conversion and cultural change.

Throughout centuries of human civilisation, few figures have been as systematically misunderstood, feared, and brutally persecuted as the witch. Far from being merely fictional characters in folktales, witches represent a powerful intersection of gender politics, social control, and collective hysteria—a dark historical narrative that transcends cultural boundaries and continues to resonate in contemporary society.

From the infamous trials in Salem, Massachusetts to the extensive witch-hunts across early modern Europe, the persecution of those labelled as "witches"—predominantly women—stands as a chilling testament to humanity's capacity for institutionalised violence against perceived outsiders. Historical records indicate that between the 15th and 18th centuries, an estimated 40,000 to 60,000 people were executed for alleged witchcraft across Europe and North America, though some scholarly estimates place the number significantly higher.

These accused individuals were not supernatural beings but real people caught in the crosshairs of religious dogma, patriarchal power structures, and community anxieties. Their persecution reveals how societies have historically weaponised otherness, transforming personal uniqueness, non-conformity, or marginal social status into perceived threats requiring elimination. Women who were elderly, unmarried, widowed, or who possessed knowledge of herbal medicine were particularly vulnerable to accusations.

The legacy of witch persecution extends beyond historical injustice to influence contemporary patterns of scapegoating and marginalisation. By examining the social mechanisms that enabled witch-hunts, we gain valuable insights into how fear is manipulated to suppress dissent or difference, and how accusations can function as tools of social control in times of uncertainty.

The resources linked below explore the complex mythology surrounding witches, tracing their transformation from folk healers and wise women to demonised figures, examining the brutal mechanisms of persecution, and considering how these historical patterns continue to inform modern attitudes toward women who challenge established norms.

This Baltic brass ring featuring sun symbols offers a compelling example of how mythological understanding was literally worn on the body in traditional societies. Drawing inspiration from archaeological discoveries throughout the Baltic region, such rings transformed abstract cosmological concepts into tangible, personal objects that connected individuals to broader cultural narratives.

The sun motif, prevalent in Baltic decorative arts, functioned simultaneously as an aesthetic element and a profound cosmological symbol. Representing life, fertility, and the cyclical nature of time, the sun emblem connected the wearer to the fundamental patterns governing both natural processes and human experience. The belief that such symbols represented "the beginning of the world" suggests their role in anchoring individual identity within a comprehensive mythological framework.

Beyond their symbolic content, rings held special significance as circular objects with no beginning or end—physical embodiments of cyclical time and continuity. By wearing such symbols on the body, individuals incorporated themselves into the cosmic order, affiliating themselves with the generative power of celestial bodies while simultaneously marking cultural belonging through distinctive stylistic execution.

The craftsmanship evident in these pieces reflects the sophisticated metalworking traditions of Baltic peoples, where technical skill itself was understood within a mythological framework. Metalworking frequently carried associations with transformation and even magical properties in traditional European societies, lending additional layers of meaning to the finished objects. Such rings thus demonstrate how material culture in traditional societies operated simultaneously in practical, aesthetic, and spiritual domains rather than separating these functions as modern thinking tends to do.

This woodcut depicting the mythical creature "Su" was created by the renowned artist Christoffel Jegher (c. 1596-1653) for Juan Eusebio Nieremberg's influential natural history text Historia naturae, maxime peregrinae, libris XVI. distincta, published in Antwerp in 1635. Now preserved in the Museum Plantin-Moretus in Antwerp, Belgium—a UNESCO World Heritage site housing the world's oldest printing presses—this artifact represents the fascinating intersection of early scientific inquiry, mythology, and Renaissance print culture.

Nieremberg (1595-1658), a Spanish Jesuit scholar, created a comprehensive work that attempted to catalogue both actual and legendary creatures from the known world, with particular attention to specimens from the Americas. The inclusion of mythical beings like the "Su" alongside empirically documented animals reflects the transitional nature of scientific understanding in the early modern period, when the boundaries between observation, hearsay, and inherited classical authority remained fluid.

Jegher, who served as court engraver to the King of Spain and collaborated with Peter Paul Rubens on numerous projects, brought considerable artistic skill to this illustration. His technique exemplifies the sophisticated woodcut tradition developed in 16th and 17th century Europe, which allowed for the mass reproduction of detailed images essential to the dissemination of natural history knowledge.

The woodcut's acquisition by the Plantin-Moretus Museum in 1876 preserved it as part of the legacy of the Plantin Press, one of Europe's most significant publishing houses during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. This illustration stands as a testament to the evolving understanding of the natural world during a period when empirical observation was increasingly challenging, but had not yet displaced, the authority of classical and medieval textual traditions.

This Lithuanian folk song, recorded by the prominent 19th-century scholar Jonas Basanavičius from villagers in Dziegcioriai, represents a crucial moment in the preservation of Baltic oral traditions. The documentation of such cultural expressions occurred during a period when traditional rural practices were increasingly threatened by modernisation and political suppression, making Basanavičius's work not merely academic documentation but a deliberate act of cultural preservation with nationalist implications.

Folk songs held particular significance in Lithuanian cultural identity due to their role in maintaining linguistic and cultural distinctiveness during periods of political domination by various empires. The persistence of Lithuanian-language songs like Oi, kad aš gertau dieną, naktelę through generations of oral transmission demonstrates how cultural practices functioned as forms of passive resistance to assimilation, preserving distinctive elements of collective identity even under political pressure.

The archival preservation of both audio recording and visual documentation in the Lithuanian Folklore Archive transforms what was originally a living, performed tradition into a documented cultural artifact. This transition from participatory community practice to institutional preservation represents a fundamental shift in how such cultural expressions function and are transmitted, while simultaneously ensuring their survival beyond the communities that originally created them.

The contemporary accessibility of these materials through institutional resources reflects evolving attitudes toward folkloric heritage, which has been revalued in post-Soviet contexts as crucial evidence of national cultural distinctiveness. The preservation of such materials thus serves not just scholarly purposes but contributes to ongoing processes of national identity formation, demonstrating how historical cultural practices continue to inform contemporary understanding of Lithuanian distinctiveness within broader Baltic and European contexts.

Naginės are traditional Baltic leather shoes that represent more than mere footwear—they embody cultural identity, practical knowledge, and the relationship between Baltic peoples and their environment. These handcrafted shoes originated in the rural communities of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, serving as everyday wear for villagers across the region.

Crafted from soft, locally sourced leather, these shoes exemplify the resourcefulness of Baltic rural communities and their ability to create functional items from available materials. Their design prioritises simplicity, durability, and comfort for walking long distances across varied terrain, reflecting the predominantly agricultural lifestyle of historical Baltic societies.

The cultural significance of Naginės extends beyond their practical function. They represent a tangible link to traditional ways of life that have been largely displaced by industrialisation and modernisation. The knowledge of their construction and use constitutes an important element of intangible cultural heritage, preserving techniques and cultural practices that might otherwise be lost.

In contemporary Baltic societies, Naginės have experienced a revival as part of a broader movement to reclaim traditional crafts and cultural practices. Artisans in the region continue to produce these shoes, often adapting traditional designs for modern wearers, demonstrating how cultural artifacts can evolve while maintaining connections to their historical origins.

This resurgence of interest in traditional footwear reflects a wider pattern in which globalised societies seek to preserve distinctive cultural elements as counterpoints to homogenisation, using material culture as a means of maintaining and expressing cultural identity.

This woodcut title page for Hubertus Goltzius' work on Roman and Greek antiquities exemplifies how Renaissance scholarly publications incorporated mythological imagery to establish visual rhetoric connecting contemporary scholarship to classical authorities. The intricate frame featuring various mythological figures demonstrates how classical references provided Renaissance printmakers with sophisticated visual language for positioning new works within established intellectual traditions.

The integration of mythological figures in the title page frame created meaningful connections between the book's content and classical tradition. By surrounding text discussing Roman and Greek antiquities with visual references to classical mythology, the design established continuity between ancient knowledge and contemporary scholarship. This visual rhetoric exemplifies how Renaissance intellectual culture positioned new investigations as extensions of classical learning rather than departures from it.

The technical execution of this woodcut demonstrates the high level of craftsmanship developed in Renaissance print shops to serve growing markets for illustrated books. The detailed mythological imagery required sophisticated woodcarving skills that transformed verbal narratives into visual elements, creating multimodal reading experiences that engaged viewers on both textual and visual levels. This integration exemplifies how printed books evolved beyond mere textual transmission to become complex cultural artifacts that combined multiple modes of communication.

The preservation of this woodcut in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts in Antwerp reflects ongoing cultural interest in understanding how visual culture participated in the evolution of scholarly communication during this pivotal period in European intellectual history. Rather than representing mere decoration, the mythological imagery served essential rhetorical functions in establishing the work's cultural authority and intellectual lineage. The woodcut thus provides valuable evidence of how mythological frameworks shaped scholarly imagination in Renaissance Europe, creating visual languages through which new knowledge could be integrated into established intellectual traditions.

The Irish flag's history offers insights into how visual symbols shape national narratives. From green fields with golden harps to today's tricolour, these emblems create visual shorthand for complex historical narratives and cultural values.

Early Irish flags used Gaelic iconography, particularly the green field with golden harp, linking modern national aspirations to ancient heritage. By using pre-colonial symbols, these flags positioned independence movements as restoring historical sovereignty rather than creating new political entities. This exemplifies how nationalist movements construct mythologies connecting contemporary struggles to idealised historical precedents.

The tricolour's introduction in 1848 by Thomas Francis Meagher represents a sophisticated attempt to address Ireland's religious divisions. Inspired by the French revolutionary tricolour, Meagher's adaptation reflected Ireland's revolutionary aspirations while addressing its unique social landscape. Incorporating green (Catholics/Nationalists), orange (Protestants/Unionists) and white (peace between them), this design articulated an aspirational vision of unity that acknowledged divisions while suggesting possible reconciliation. The tricolour functioned not simply as representation but as visual articulation of a desired future.

The flag gained deeper meaning through historical events, particularly its association with the 1916 Easter Rising. Flying above the General Post Office during the rebellion, it first became linked with narratives of sacrifice and resistance fundamental to Irish independence mythology. The Rising's leaders embraced collective struggle for the public good, aspiring to create an Ireland serving all citizens equally. In later decades, this symbol experienced problematic recontextualisations by Republican paramilitaries during the Troubles and more recently by elements of Ireland's emerging far-right movements.

This evolution shows how symbols develop through historical contexts rather than formal design alone, acquiring complex resonances that both reflect and shape collective identity, sometimes contradicting their original aspirational meaning.

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‍We Can't Let The Far Right Claim Our Tricolour
District Magazine, April 2025, Instagram, Dray Morgan (Extract)
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It's unsettling, it's saddening but it's also disgraceful. Irish iconography used to promote a fundamentally non-Irish sentiment. The Tricolour left bismerched and Irish culture being overlooked for the sake of racism and xenophobia. Don't let the far right claim our Tricolour. There's no denying that the scenes from Saturday's anti-immigration protest were unsettling. Equally as striking is the choice of iconography by right-wing demonstrators when disseminating a fundamentally non-Irish sentiment.

Tri-colours and harps were ever-present throughout the crowds, combined with chants of "Get Them Out" and other xenophobic slogans.

Here are some reasons why the Irish Tricolour and other iconography doesn't and will never align with anti-immigration and far-right rhetoric.‍

The History of the Tricolour: The Irish Tricolour came to fruition in 1848, when the leader of Young Irelanders, Thomas Francis Meagher, received the flag from a group of French women in Paris. The flag symbolised solidarity with the Irish cause against the British oppressors, as well as peace between Catholics and Protestants. The Tricolour did not become Ireland's national flag until 68 years later in 1916. Until then, it served as an international sign of solidarity between Ireland and other nations, a progressive symbol which sought equality and resistance from discriminatory regimes.

This was also the era in which Ireland saw its greatest emigration in its history. The Great Hunger saw over 2.5 million people forced to leave their homes and emigrate across the world, spreading Irish iconography and culture globally. Ireland's population decreased heavily from 6.55 million to 4.23 million, rendering those who left effective humanitarian refugees.‍

Imported Ideology: Anti-immigration has and never will be an ideology of the Irish. It is, of course, impossible to ignore the fact that Ireland has the largest diaspora per capita of any nation in the world. 80 million people outside of Ireland claim Irish ancestry. We are a nation of emigrants.

Furthermore, imported ideologies are filtered through social media into the Irish psyche. This was only exemplified by the MAGA sympathisers and even imagery of Vladimir Putin at Saturday's demonstration. In May 2024, The Journal reported on more than 150 social media accounts that were claiming to be Irish but were operated by non-Irish users. Accounts like these contribute heavily to a rising ethno-nationalistic and racist view. Irish social media users are unknowingly being influenced by foreign entities.

A Sinister Core: At the core of anti-immigration Ireland, is a truly sinister underbelly that operates through Telegram channels, with rhetoric led by unwavering racism and fringe ideologies. Figureheads such as head of the extremist far-right National Party, Justin Barrett (who was present at Saturday's rally) spew admiration for Nazi ideology as well as pushing misinformation and conspiracy theories. This has led to fringe groups such as Clann Eireann, a racist group with almost 3,000 members on Telegram. From 2020 to 2023, mis and disinformation in Irish Telegram channels rose by 326%.

Take Off Those Celtic Jerseys: Multiple Celtic jerseys were seen at the protest. Celtic F.C. was created in 1888 for the purpose of creating a club for Irish immigrants and alleviating the poverty experienced by the Irish community in Scotland. A driving factor of Celtic's ethos is acceptance, humanity and equality. Championed as a club for the oppressed and a haven for the othered, a Celtic jersey will never represent the racist and unwelcoming ideology of the far-right. Gil Heron, Celtic F.C's first black football player and father to Gil-Scott Heron, renowned musician and writer of "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised".

Do You Really Want To Be Like Them? Looking at our British neighbours, the St. George's flag has been ruined by years of bigotry, discrimination and hatred being flown under the banner of the image. Far-right groups on both sides of our seas have appropriated their national flags, giving it connotations of hate and fear. We cannot let this happen to the tricolour, a symbol of hope, peace and a piece of Irish iconography for all to be proud of. We can't let the far right claim our Tricolour.

"The Tricolour will be a right-wing symbol soon if it's not front and centre at counters. Being allergic to your own flag is moronic and damages your legitimacy as a national movement. A sea of red and pink flags without the hard won symbols of Irish nationalism plays into the right-wing narrative that left is inherently anti-Irish. Fly the tricolour if you don't want it to end up like the St Georges flag in England."
Irish artist Spice Bag

Instagram: @district.magazine; Writing @dray.morgan; Photography @hasanyikiciphotography; Additional; @hasanyikiciphotography @gregbyrnephoto @spicebag.exe

The concept of myth has long been recognised as a tool for addressing existential uncertainties and imbuing human actions with meaning. In traditional societies, myths were not perceived as false but rather as narratives that helped make sense of the world through symbolic frameworks. This understanding shifted significantly with the emergence of political myth, a deliberate construct created to consolidate power and influence.

In this analysis, Joanna Włodarczyk examines the role of political mythology within the context of the Round Table negotiations and the subsequent Fourth Republic of Poland, with particular focus on the political period of 2005-2007. The Round Table talks of 1989, which facilitated Poland's transition from communism to democracy, became the foundation for competing mythological narratives about the nation's rebirth.

Through careful study of political speeches and election campaigns from 2005 and 2007, Włodarczyk explores how myths, often irrational in nature, become intertwined with rational techniques employed to propagate them. This duality reveals how political narratives are crafted to shape public perception and serve strategic objectives, often by simplifying complex historical events into archetypal patterns that resonate emotionally with citizens.

The analysis demonstrates how the concept of the "Fourth Republic" became a powerful political myth during this period, promising moral renewal and justice after what some political actors portrayed as an imperfect or compromised transition to democracy. By mythologising the past, particularly the Round Table negotiations, political forces attempted to legitimise their vision for Poland's future while delegitimising their opponents.

This research illuminates how political mythology functions in contemporary democratic societies, showing that despite increased secularisation and rationalisation of public life, mythical thinking remains a potent force in political discourse, shaping collective memory and national identity in profound ways.

Jan Matejko's painting Vernyhora, begun in the 1870s and completed in 1884, represents a significant artistic engagement with a semi-mythical figure who occupies a unique position in both Ukrainian and Polish cultural memory. Currently housed in the National Museum in Kraków, this work demonstrates how historical and legendary narratives can be visually reinterpreted to address contemporary national concerns.

Vernyhora, a Ukrainian bard and lyricist who may have lived during the late 18th century, inhabits the ambiguous boundary between historical figure and mythological construct. Living during a period of anti-noble uprisings in Ukraine, he allegedly opposed the prevailing movements and became renowned for his prophetic visions concerning the intertwined fates of Poland and Ukraine.

These prophecies, which reportedly foretold the partitions of Poland, the failure of national uprisings, and the eventual revival of Polish statehood, secured Vernyhora's place in the cultural imagination of both nations. His liminal status—between Ukrainian and Polish worlds, between historical fact and legend—made him a particularly potent symbol during the 19th century, when questions of national identity and independence were paramount concerns.

Matejko, Poland's foremost historical painter, captures Vernyhora at the moment of delivering his prophecy. The figure is depicted wearing an eastern cross on his chest, symbolising the ancient unity of Ukraine and Poland—a time of supposed national and social harmony before the violent upheavals of the 18th century. The lyre at his feet further signifies the power of artistic expression to preserve shared cultural heritage despite political and historical divisions.

This painting exemplifies how mythologised historical figures can be mobilised in times of national crisis to articulate aspirations for cultural continuity and political restoration, demonstrating the fluid boundaries between history, myth, and political symbolism.

Laima, deriving her name from the Lithuanian word laimė meaning "happiness" or "luck," is a central figure in Baltic mythology, revered as the goddess of fate and fortune.

Predominantly worshipped in Latvia and Lithuania, she plays a crucial role in the life cycle of individuals, from birth to death, marriage, and even the fate of crops and animals. Laima's influence permeates daily life, particularly in matters of fortune, well-being, and success.

Closely associated with the sacred linden tree, Laima often appears alongside Dievs, the sky god, and Saule, the sun goddess, forming a divine trio governing human destiny. Her presence is particularly significant during childbirth, when she pronounces each infant's destiny. She also arranges marriages, oversees weddings, and protects pregnant women, ensuring life's continuity and societal harmony.

In Latvian mythology, Laima sometimes forms part of a trinity of fate deities with her sisters Kārta and Dēkla. While all three have similar functions, Laima governs luck and childbirth, Dēkla oversees children, and Kārta influences adult life.

Her role extends to the natural world, influencing field fertility and animal well-being, particularly horses. This multifaceted role offers insight into Baltic cultural values, emphasising the interconnectedness of fate, nature, and human existence.

William Elliot Griffis's collection Belgian Fairy Tales represents a significant contribution to the preservation and transmission of European folkloric traditions at a time when rapid industrialisation threatened traditional oral cultures. As part of Griffis's broader project documenting global folklore—including Dutch, Japanese, and Korean tales—this work demonstrates the universal human tendency to create explanatory narratives while highlighting the distinctive cultural elements that make Belgian traditions unique.

Specifically aimed at young readers, this collection exemplifies how traditional folkloric material was adapted and recontextualised for modern audiences in the early 20th century. The deliberate framing of these tales for children reflects a broader cultural shift in which folklore—once an integral part of communal life for people of all ages—became increasingly categorised as children's literature. This transformation fundamentally altered how such narratives functioned in society, changing them from multivalent cultural resources into primarily pedagogical or entertainment tools.

The rich illustrations featured throughout the volume serve not merely as decorative elements but as essential components of the storytelling experience, creating visual entry points into the narrative world. This integration of text and image creates a multisensory experience that, while different from traditional oral storytelling, offers its own form of immersive engagement with cultural mythology.

Griffis's work as a collector and adapter of global folklore positioned him within a broader international movement to document and preserve traditional narratives during a period of rapid social change. This comparative approach to mythology anticipated modern understanding of how similar narrative patterns emerge across cultures while manifesting in culturally specific forms. His collection thus stands as both a cultural artifact of early 20th century approaches to folklore and a valuable preservation of traditional Belgian narrative traditions.

Adrian Musiał's Mitologia współczesnych Polaków offers a sophisticated analysis of how historical events like the myth of the "cursed soldiers" and the Smolensk disaster function as political mythology in contemporary Polish discourse. By examining how these events are mythologised to evoke national pride and sacrifice while simultaneously serving specific political agendas, Musiał demonstrates how mythological thinking continues to shape national consciousness and political discourse in ostensibly rational modern contexts.

The transformation of historical events into mythological narratives illustrates how contemporary societies continue to process complex realities through simplified symbolic frameworks. Rather than engaging with the full complexity of historical circumstances, political mythologies select and emphasise certain elements while downplaying others, creating coherent narratives that reinforce particular worldviews and values. This process operates remarkably similarly to traditional mythmaking despite its modern political contexts.

Particularly significant is Musiał's recognition that these mythologies transcend historical facts, becoming powerful tools in Poland's political discourse. This insight highlights how mythological frameworks often acquire independent cultural power that exceeds their factual foundations, influencing public understanding and political decision-making even when they diverge significantly from documented historical realities. This phenomenon demonstrates the persistent human tendency to organise understanding through compelling narratives rather than complex factual analysis.

Musiał's critical examination of how history is used to influence contemporary politics exemplifies the increasing self-awareness with which modern societies engage with their own mythological processes. Rather than simply participating in mythological thinking unconsciously, contemporary analysis increasingly recognises and evaluates mythmaking as an identifiable social process with significant consequences for collective understanding and action. This reflective stance represents an important evolution in how societies engage with their own mythological systems, potentially enabling more conscious and critical participation in shared narrative frameworks.

The founding of the Gaelic League (Conradh na Gaeilge) in 1893 marks a pivotal moment in Irish cultural history, representing a deliberate effort to reclaim and revitalise a central element of national identity at a critical historical juncture. Under the leadership of Douglas Hyde, a Protestant scholar who would later become Ireland's first president, the League emerged as a formidable force in shaping a renewed sense of Irish cultural distinctiveness.

Hyde's vision, articulated in his influential 1892 speech "The Necessity for De-Anglicising Ireland," framed Irish heritage as a wellspring of national strength and distinctiveness that had been eroded through centuries of colonial influence. His approach positioned language revival not merely as a linguistic project but as a comprehensive cultural regeneration essential to authentic national identity.

Drawing upon the rich tapestry of Celtic myths, traditional music, and oral storytelling traditions, the Gaelic League fostered a cultural renaissance that sought to counter the homogenising forces of British colonialism. By offering Irish language classes, traditional music sessions, and Irish dance workshops through branches across the country, the League connected communities with the mythology of their heritage, transforming cultural symbols into powerful expressions of identity and resistance.

The League's influence extended far beyond language revitalisation. Many of its members, including Patrick Pearse and Éamon de Valera, would become central figures in Ireland's independence movement, demonstrating how cultural revival often serves as a precursor to political mobilisation. While officially non-political, the organisation created spaces where national consciousness could develop and strengthen.

In this sense, Conradh na Gaeilge functioned as a re-mythologising movement, reimagining Ireland as a land defined by its own ancient and enduring narratives rather than through colonial perspectives. By positioning Irish language and culture at the heart of national identity, the League provided a narrative of resilience and authenticity that would profoundly influence Ireland's path toward independence and its subsequent cultural policies.

Močiute mano, senoji mano, kam mane mažą valioj auginaii is a traditional Lithuanian folk song recorded by the influential 19th-century scholar Jonas Basanavičius, often regarded as the patriarch of the Lithuanian National Revival.

Sung by villagers from Dziegcioriai village in what is now Lithuania, this song reflects deeply embedded cultural themes of intergenerational relationships, familial bonds, and the passage from childhood to adulthood. The narrative voice questions the grandmother about the purpose of nurturing and raising a child with such care, expressing a poignant reflection on the cycle of life and responsibility.

The song belongs to Lithuania's rich tradition of folk music, which has served as a crucial repository of cultural memory and identity, particularly during periods when Lithuanian national identity was suppressed under various occupations. Folk songs like this one preserved linguistic traditions, cultural values, and historical memory when formal institutions could not.

The archiving of such cultural expressions by the Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto Lietuvių tautosakos archyvas, (Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore) represents a vital effort to preserve intangible cultural heritage. This preservation allows contemporary audiences to engage with traditional expressions of community values and shared experiences that might otherwise be lost.

Through such folk songs, we can observe how oral traditions serve as vehicles for cultural transmission, conveying wisdom, values, and emotional experiences across generations, maintaining continuity while allowing for adaptation to changing social contexts.

National Treasures is an innovative crowdsourced archive project that collects everyday objects and cultural stories to highlight Ireland's heritage throughout the past century. Developed by RTÉ, Ireland's national broadcaster, in collaboration with the National Museum of Ireland, this initiative represents a democratic approach to heritage documentation and preservation.

The project invites the public to submit objects representing significant moments and experiences, creating a digital archive that reflects Ireland's diverse narratives. Rather than focusing exclusively on items of monetary value or those associated with famous figures, National Treasures prioritises objects that carry personal and community significance, democratising the concept of what constitutes "treasure."

This approach emphasises how personal memories and seemingly mundane artefacts contribute to national history, demonstrating that even simple items can reveal profound social changes and cultural values. By involving ordinary citizens in the curation process, National Treasures honours individual stories while connecting viewers to shared Irish experiences, creating a more inclusive understanding of national identity.

The multi-platform campaign encompasses a website, roadshow events, a four-part television series, and a physical exhibition at the National Museum of Ireland. This comprehensive approach fosters broad participation and community engagement, allowing people from diverse backgrounds to see their experiences reflected in the national narrative.

By highlighting the importance of personal memory in shaping collective history, National Treasures strengthens the understanding of Irish identity for future generations while demonstrating how shared narratives emerge from individual experiences.

James Ensor's (1860-1949) pencil sketch of a mythological scene exemplifies how modern artists continued to draw inspiration from classical mythological sources while transforming them through distinctive personal vision and contemporary concerns. As a Belgian artist renowned for his unsettling works that blend surrealism, grotesque imagery, and sharp social commentary, Ensor approached mythological subjects not as mere academic exercises but as vehicles for exploring profound questions about human existence and social structures.

Throughout his career, Ensor explored themes of death, human folly, and societal masks, frequently employing motifs like skeletons, masks, and distorted figures. His engagement with mythological imagery provided an established symbolic language through which he could address these persistent concerns, adapting classical references to express distinctly modern anxieties about identity, mortality, and social authenticity.

Ensor's ability to fuse mythological, religious, and folk imagery with contemporary social critique positioned him as a precursor to surrealism, demonstrating how traditional symbolic systems could be reimagined to address the psychological and social disruptions of modernity. His work demonstrates that mythological thinking remained a vital artistic resource even as traditional belief systems lost cultural authority, providing flexible frameworks for exploring aspects of human experience that resist purely rational explanation.

The tension between the real and the imagined in Ensor's work—highlighted in this drawing's cataloguing title—reflects broader modernist concerns with the nature of reality and representation. By deploying mythological imagery within dreamlike or nightmarish landscapes, Ensor created visual experiences that challenged simplistic distinctions between objective and subjective reality, using traditional symbolic language to explore distinctly modern psychological territories. His enduring influence demonstrates how mythological frameworks continued to provide valuable resources for artistic innovation even in rapidly secularising modern contexts.

Talking History offers a distinctive exploration of pivotal political, social and cultural events that have shaped our world, examining the complex figures central to these historical moments. Hosted by Dr Patrick Geoghegan of Trinity College Dublin, this programme interrogates the multifaceted, often contested dimensions of our collective past, illuminating what these historical narratives reveal about contemporary society.

Fionn MacCumhaill
This episode of Talking History examines how Fionn MacCumhaill—a central figure in Irish mythology—exemplifies the complex evolution of cultural narratives through oral and written transmission over centuries. By assembling a panel of distinguished experts including Dr. Natasha Sumner, Dr. Kevin Murray, Brian O'Sullivan, Dr. Sheila Nivorku, and Dr. James McKillop, host Patrick Geoghegan creates a multidimensional exploration of how this legendary figure has been portrayed across diverse texts and traditions.

Fionn's character development through centuries of storytelling reveals how mythological figures function not as static entities but as dynamic cultural resources that evolve to address changing social concerns while maintaining recognisable core identity. The diverse depictions of Fionn across different texts—from heroic warrior to wise leader to comic figure—demonstrate how mythological characters acquire layers of meaning through continuous reinterpretation, reflecting evolving cultural values and concerns.

The discussion of the Fenian Cycle in both Irish and Scots Gaelic literature, with additional insights from Dr. Joseph Flav, highlights how mythological narratives transcend political and linguistic boundaries. This cross-cultural persistence demonstrates how foundational cultural narratives often survive political divisions, creating shared cultural heritage that both unites and distinguishes related cultural groups.

The scholarly approach taken in this episode exemplifies modern engagement with mythological traditions—analytical and contextual rather than devotional, yet still recognising the profound cultural significance of these narratives. This mode of engagement allows contemporary audiences to appreciate mythological traditions not as literal history but as sophisticated cultural systems that continue to provide frameworks for understanding cultural identity and values. The program thus demonstrates how mythological figures like Fionn maintain cultural relevance through continuous reinterpretation that connects traditional narratives to contemporary concerns.

This Baltic brass brooch, adorned with sun and plant motifs, exemplifies how material artefacts serve as repositories of cultural mythology. Inspired by archaeological findings from the Roman Iron Age, such decorative objects were never merely ornamental but functioned as wearable expressions of cosmological understanding and social identity.

The sun motif, prevalent throughout Baltic archaeological findings, represents one of humanity's most universal mythological symbols. Its prominence in Baltic decorative arts reflects not simply aesthetic preference but a sophisticated symbolic system connecting human experience to cosmic order. By wearing such symbols, individuals incorporated themselves into a larger narrative framework that explained natural cycles and affirmed cultural continuity.

Plant motifs, frequently paired with solar imagery, create a visual representation of the relationship between celestial influence and earthly fertility—a fundamental pattern in agricultural mythologies worldwide. This symbolic pairing reflects pre-modern understanding of cosmic interconnection, where celestial movements directly influenced terrestrial prosperity.

Beyond their symbolic content, such brooches fulfilled multiple functions simultaneously: practical fasteners, indicators of social status, and protective talismans. This multi-functionality exemplifies how mythological thinking permeated everyday life in traditional societies, collapsing modern distinctions between practical, aesthetic, and spiritual domains. The craftsmanship evident in these pieces demonstrates that technical skill itself was understood within a mythological framework, with metalworking often associated with transformative or even magical properties. These brooches thus provide a tangible link to a world where material objects naturally expressed immaterial values and beliefs.

Legends of the Rhine by Wilhelm Ruland is a collection of folk tales inspired by the Rhine River and the surrounding Low Countries, a region rich in mythological tradition.

The book presents stories that have become deeply intertwined with the cultural fabric of the region, including the well-known Lorelei legend and other local myths. These narratives, often blending history and legend, reflect the people's connection to the river landscape and demonstrate how geographical features become repositories for cultural meaning and identity.

Accompanied by illustrations from celebrated artists, the text visually enhances these narratives, bringing mythological figures and settings to life. The tales capture not only the natural beauty of the Rhine but also the powerful stories that have emerged over centuries, contributing to the river's status as a symbol of romance and legend in European folklore.

The work stands as a literary exploration of the Rhine's mythical significance, offering insight into how landscapes shape narrative traditions and how these stories, in turn, influence how people understand and relate to their environments.

The myth of the American Dream has long represented a powerful narrative framework in American culture and politics, encapsulating the belief that prosperity, success, and upward mobility are achievable for anyone through hard work and determination, regardless of their origins.

This enduring cultural mythology draws on several interconnected narratives: the myth of the self-made individual who achieves success through personal effort alone; the frontier myth, which positions America as a land of boundless opportunity and resources; and the myth of meritocracy, suggesting that success is allocated based solely on merit rather than inherited advantage. Collectively, these narratives have positioned America as a uniquely egalitarian society where each generation can achieve greater prosperity than the last.

However, in recent decades, this idealistic vision has faced increasing scrutiny as empirical evidence reveals growing economic inequality and declining social mobility in the United States. The myth of meritocracy, in particular, has been challenged by research demonstrating how systemic barriers—including racial discrimination, wealth inequality, and unequal access to education and healthcare—significantly influence individual outcomes regardless of personal effort or ability.

Similarly, the frontier myth, once symbolic of limitless potential, appears increasingly outdated in a contemporary landscape where access to essential resources like education, healthcare, and housing has become prohibitively expensive for many Americans. The narrative of continuous progress between generations has also been undermined by economic data showing stagnant wages and diminished opportunities for many working and middle-class families.

This growing disconnect between the promise of upward mobility and the lived experience of many Americans has contributed to political polarisation and disillusionment across the nation, as competing visions of the American Dream and its accessibility clash in public discourse.

The Dublin City Council's Bram Stoker Festival represents a sophisticated contemporary reinterpretation of mythological thinking, transforming Gothic literary heritage into participatory cultural experience. By celebrating Stoker's legacy through diverse artistic expressions, the festival demonstrates how literary mythologies can be adapted to serve modern communal needs while maintaining connection to their source material.

Founded in 1994 and now one of Dublin's largest arts festivals, this annual event exemplifies how cultural mythologies function as renewable resources that can be continually reinterpreted to address contemporary concerns. The festival's exploration of the supernatural and the "after-dark" creates ritual space for engaging with themes of mortality, fear, and transformation—universal human concerns that traditional mythologies have always addressed.

The festival's emphasis on bilingualism and rural community life connects Gothic literary traditions to older Irish cultural expressions, creating a complex layering of mythological frameworks. This synthesis demonstrates how new cultural narratives often incorporate elements from multiple sources, adapting them to create coherent experiences that simultaneously honor tradition and respond to contemporary circumstances.

Perhaps most significantly, the festival's framing of creativity as "community medicine" articulates an understanding of art and ritual as essential components of social and psychological wellbeing. This perspective echoes traditional views of myth and ritual as necessary elements of healthy community functioning rather than mere entertainment. By creating spaces for collective experiences of the uncanny and the imaginative, the Bram Stoker Festival fulfills functions remarkably similar to traditional mythological practices while adapting them to contemporary urban contexts and aesthetic sensibilities.